THE return of Jews to Palestine has been very marked during the last ten years. The possibility that thousands may return is great. Up to 1832 European Jews were repeatedly banished from the land. In 1874 an accurate statistician gave the number of Jews living in Palestine as 10,000. The same person, twenty years later, in 1894, estimates that 49,960 lived then in the leading towns of Palestine; an increase in twenty years of about 40,000. In the last ten years the Jewish population in Palestine has almost doubled.

Jerusalem has never been such a "Jewish" city since the year 70 as it is to-day, and the city has, with its railroad station, electric lights, etc., quite a modern appearance. The Jews living in the land are from almost every country of the world. This in itself is a significant fact.

Some years ago we printed in "Our Hope" a series of articles on the Jews in Palestine and their condition. The information comes from a reliable source¹ and we give part of it now:

I. The Jews of Palestine are very various as to origin; they are indeed from all parts of the world. A rough division may be made into the Arabic-speaking and the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Of the first mentioned, the great majority are the Sephardim Jews, who have resided in the Turkish Empire for many generations.

It is well known that at the time of the Crusades there were very few Jews in Palestine-probably at most not more than about a thousand. The Jews in Jerusalem itself were nearly all killed in 1099. by the Crusaders. After the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem they began to return, and early in the thirteenth century we hear of 300 Jewish rabbis from France and England coming to the Holy Land. The larger number, however, of the present Sephardim are descendants of those Jews who were driven out of Spain in 1492 by the edicts of Ferdinand and Isabella. The majority of these have found their way to Palestine from other parts of the Turkish Empire, and notably from Constantinople. Through all their years of wandering since they left Spain they have maintained their Spanish-a Spanish which, of course (as in every language spoken by Jews), is amplified by the addition of Hebraisms, but which keeps the leading characteristics of the Spanish of 466 years ago. All the Sephardim know Arabic, and those living in the North-in ancient Galilee and Syria-speak Arabic habitually, and have in the majority of cases completely dropped Spanish. It is very curious whereas the communities at Jerusalem, Hebron, and Jaffa, etc., speak Spanish constantly, the same communities in Safed, Tiberias, and Damascus scarcely use any Spanish at all. During a residence of some months in Galilee I only met one or two persons who knew Spanish, and they were from Jerusalem.

It will be convenient to class under this heading many smaller groups of Eastern Jews. Of these. I would mention especially the Mugrabin or Marocco, the Yemenite and the Georgian or Circassian Jews. There are also many small communities of Jews from Aleppo, Bagdad. Persia and Bokhara, who keep themselves in many respects apart from others.

The Mugrabin or Marocco Jews are particularly poor, and are probably the most degraded of all the Jewish communities. They speak the Arabic dialect of North Africa, from whence they come, and in some leading characteristics resemble the Mugrabin Arabs who have come to Palestine at various times. They are very closely identified with the Sephardim in religious ritual.

The Yemen Jew is from South Arabia, and is distinguished by his swarthy skin, his coal-black hair, his cork-screw forelock, and his complete familiarity with what is recognized in Jerusalem as the good dialect of Arabic. They are a poor community, mostly in rags, though they are hard-working. As they have been in Jerusalem only about a dozen years, and arrived penniless, they have not yet had time to establish a good position for themselves Except for the cork-screw forelock, their appearance would never lead an inexperienced observer to suspect that he was looking upon a Jew. Many of them are very dark indeed-much darker than the Fellahin of the mountains.

A very different community from the two mentioned is that of the Gourgee or Circassian Jews. These come from Kurdistan and still further north. In many of their physiognomical peculiarities, as well as in their dress, they resemble the Circassians, who were once their neighbors. They are a fine, tall race, with long fair faces, generally dark hair and prominent features. They have none of the cringing servility of an average Ashkenaz Jew. As a community they are comparatively rich, and have established them-selves both inside and outside the walls of Jerusalem, and in smaller numbers in Jaffa. Russian and Georgian arc their native languages, and many take advantage of their knowledge of the former to supply the necessity of the Russian pilgrims.

The remaining Eastern Jews are from various parts of the Eastern Turkish Empire, from Persia, from Central Asia and India. Of these, the richest and most prosperous are the Jews from Bokhara, who form an increasing com-munity, and are now building some handsome houses a little way out of the city of Jerusalem. The Bokhara Jews are physically well developed, and both the Jews and Jewesses dress in cloths of the most fantastic colors, in which bright yellows and reds play a prominent part. Some of their garments remind one of the fantastic dresses forced upon the heretics condemned to be burnt by the Spanish Inquisition.

The second great community of Jews in Palestine, and the one which is yearly becoming of greater importance, is the Ashkenaz community. This is composed of Jews from Russia, Poland, Germany and Austria, chiefly. The characteristic Jew of Whitechapel is an Ashkenaz Jew. Although the community is primarily from the countries mentioned above, they come from most European countries, and by secondary emigration, from North America the Cape of Good Hope, and Australia. This class of Jews has only been allowed to settle in Palestine since 1832, before which date they were repeatedly expelled. The type is so well known to English people that it seems hardly worth while to enlarge upon it. They usually have fair hair and light eyes. but otherwise the cast of face appears to be mud; modified, according to whether they come from Russia. Germany or further west. Hooked noses, supposed vulgarly to be a characteristic of Jews, are not by any means common. The language of the Ashkenaz Jew is. as is well known. Yiddish-a language which, while in its foundation German differs greatly from it in pronunciation and grammatical construction. It is too corrupted by the individual speaking it who introduces Russian. Polish, German or English into it according to taste. It goes without saying that Yiddish is not Yiddish without a good sprinkling of Hebrew words. The Ashkenaz community are divided into two great groups, the Perushim and the Chassidim, from differences in religious ritual which do not concern us here. It should be mentioned that there is a sprinkling of Jews from France, who, in proportion to their small numbers have a great influence among the other Jews in the country, both intellectually and religiously. It is of great interest to every scientific observer to notice how completely the Jews, while remaining a separate people, have in physiognomy, in dress and to a great extent in habit, become like the people among whom they have so long dwelt. The Sephardim Jew the Yemenite, and the Mugrabin, are all very like the Arabs of their respective places of long residence; the Georgian Jew is very much like the Circassian. Among the Ashkenaz Jews one finds many a Russian Jewess in outward appearance the image of the Russian pilgrim who haunts Jerusalem at Easter time, while many a comely Jewess from hap-pier surroundings in Germany has an unmistakable German physiognomy.²

The vast majority of the Jews are naturally Turkish subjects, and can claim no other protection. Many come into the country as subjects of other nations, but their children become subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Some years ago, many Jews made a great effort to come under the protection of Great Britain, but after considerable numbers were enrolled as British subjects, further additions were prevented by order of the British Government. Most, if not all. the Bokhara and some of the Gourgee Jews are under Russian protection.

Every community, even the small ones, is, in religious matters, governed by its own Chief Rabbi; but all the Jews of Palestine are officially under the Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem, who holds a firman from the Sultan, has his own cavass or Turkish guard, and is, in Jerusalem, only second in authority to the Pashaw. Hitherto this official has always been drawn from the Sephardim community, but the Ashkenazim. on account of their increasing numbers, are hoping to have one of their own number elected to the port before long.

II. From this somewhat scanty account of the Jewish communities in Palestine let us now turn to their condition and prospects. It will be convenient in considering this divide off the Jews of Palestine into four rough classes.

(1) Those Jews who spend their whole time in purely religious occupations--e. g. the study of the sacred books-and those whose great object in coming to the country is to die on holy soil.

(2) Jews who have, perhaps, come to the country from religious motives, but who have still to earn their living to assist out their scanty "Haluka," the allowance they receive from funds contributed by Jews of other countries for their support.

(3) Those who have been brought up in the country, and have had to earn their own living unassisted.

(4) Jews who have by various philanthropic agencies been settled in agricultural communities on the land.

It should also perhaps be mentioned that there are besides these a considerable number of paupers subsisting on local charity. Some of these have got admission into the country in a state of penury, and have through various reasons been unable to rise above their poverty. It is well known that they generally do rise if their surroundings make it possible, others are widows with children, whose husbands came into the country in perhaps enfeebled health, for religious purposes, or who perchance, always lived "from hand to mouth." Yet others are remnants of a time when it was thought that all the rising generation should learn only to read the Talmud and despise a trade. These very poor Jews occur of course in the large towns, but more especially in the two largest Jewish communities, Jerusalem and Safed. Some are beggars by profession. It must not be thought, as many would think who read the erroneous accounts published regarding Jerusalem, that a very large proportion belong to this class. It is a class much to be pitied, but not, I believe, so needy nor so large a class as in most European cities.

(I) With regard to the Chachams (i. e., "sages," included in class I), who in all communities are supported for their religious duties, it is unnecessary to say much. They are, if sufficiently learned, fairly well provided for by the Haluka, which is collected for this purpose from all parts of the world. In the Sephardim community of Jerusalem, the Chachams who devote their whole time to the study of the law, number upwards of 300 families, and from this number certain "messengers of the congregations" are deputed to travel all over the world to collect funds for the support of the whole body of religious men. They often travel far: I know one such messenger personally, who has visited on this errand almost every European country, as well as India, North Africa, and America. These messengers are well paid, and the posts are naturally coveted.

Among the Sephardim almost all the Haluka goes to the chief men: there are a few minor appointments which help a few, but the great bulk of these Jews have no special fund, though there are many charitable institutions for providing houses and other assistance.

In the Ashkenaz communities, on the other hand, almost all the individuals receive some pecuniary assistance, but it varies very much according to the place from which it comes.

The whole Ashkenaz community is divided into two great groups—the Perushim and the Chassidim—but each of these divisions is with respect to the Haluka subdivided: Thus, the Perushim Ashkenazim from Warsaw have a fund to divide among themselves sent from Warsaw; those from Minsk have another fund derived from that district, and so on. There are nine main subdivisions under the Jerusalem Perushim, and five under the Jerusalem Chassidim Jews. Not only does the Haluka vary very much according as to whence it comes, but as the communities in Europe, especially in Russia, have got poorer, the Haluka has got less and less, and many of the Jews could not possibly live on it alone.

Many of the Chachams among the Ashkenazim, however, have come to Palestine in extreme old age or in failing middle age to pass their declining years in studying the Law and the other sacred books on sacred soil, and to lay their bones within Holy Land. This is the case with great numbers in the "colonies" around Jerusalem, and perhaps more so still in Safed, where most of the Ashkenazim belong to that category.

A certain proportion of the members of the smaller communities belong to this class. Not a few of this class have come with a good income, either sent to them from their old homes or derived from savings brought with them.

(2) By easy steps we pass to the second class, where we find men who have come from purely religious motives, but, finding it impossible to manage on their Haluka, or, perhaps, marrying in middle life and burdening themselves thus with extra cares and expenses, are obliged to do something to earn a livelihood. Many of this latter class become tailors, small shopkeepers, etc., while among the Sephardim Chachams some may find extra remuneration as teachers and readers of the Mishna, offers of prayers with the sick, etc. Some have a kind of hereditary right to some assistance from some of the colleges (so-called) for reading the Talmud, though they do not themselves necessarily study much.

(3) We next come to the very interesting class of Jews who are earning their livelihood in the country in various ways, and with these I wish to deal somewhat more at length. It will be noticed that those previously mentioned are more or less living on the earnings of others and spending money sent to them from other lands. Like so large a proportion of residents in the country, they live on the religious enthusiasm of their co-religionists in their old homes.

The Jews engaged in business in Palestine are very numerous, and they belong to all classes of the community; they are found in all parts of the country. Thus. if you visit the towns along the coast from Gaza to Beyrout you will find in every place not only that there are Jews in business, but that a large proportion of the business is in their hands. There is no town of importance in the country without its representative of the nation, and in many villages you will find one or more Jews engaged in keeping a "general store," or in "cobbling." or in money-lending. When traveling in the country in 1893, I arrived with a party at an out-of-the-way village called El Burj, on the borders of the hill country of Judea. about four hours' ride from Lydda. Scarcely were the tents been set when out came the inevitable Jew; who this time was engaged in cheese-making for the benefit of the Fellahin. When journeying in 1894 in Upper Galilee, on the way to Tyre and Sidon. I stopped for the night at the little village of Rumash and there, sure enough, was the Jew and his little shop. In the miserable, squalid village of Jericho, in the mountain fastness of Kerak in Moab, and amongst the Bedouin of the Hauran (engaged in corn-buying generally), you will come across Jews.

In Jerusalem, Jews have most of the money-changing and money-lending in their hands, and, except for some German shops, they do most of the general business. The cleverest of handicrafts are the Ashkenazim, who have most of the furniture-making, olive wood work, plumber's work, watch and clockmaking, book-binding. printing, etc., while the Sephardim are most successful as drapers, fancy trimming sellers, etc. All classes, i. e, Mugrabin and Yemens, as well as those mentioned above, flourish as tailors, cobblers, rough tinmen, etc.

Many act as carriage-drivers in places where carriages are used, such as Jerusalem, Jaffa, etc., and the poorer ones carry loads on their lacks, or go up and down the country's "mokarris" or  muleteers. Their cleverness and industry are indisputable. You may watch many a Jew in a miserable little place where he has scarcely room to move a leg, or under a tiny awning, sit tapping away at mending shoes or soldering together the many wonderful tin articles which he makes out of old petroleum tins. The competition is very great and (as in the east of London) the Jew will work with a minimum margin of profit. A list of all the various trades followed by Jews in Palestine would fill a whole page; but to show that it is not only the rougher trades which are followed, I must mention that I know of Jews who are surgical instrument makers, chemists, electrical machinists, broom makers, etc.

It goes without saying that the Jews derive a very great share of their custom in such places as Jerusalem and Jaffa from the various religious societies which exist there. They work also for the natives of the country; indeed, there is much work in the country, introduced by the spread of European ideas, which only Jews can at present do. There is however, comparatively little work for so many Jews to do, and often the competition is so severe that the workers can scarcely get enough to live upon. There are very few more openings for Jews in the country, and I do not hesitate to say that, unless the general prosperity of the country increases in some extraordinary and unlooked for way. there cannot be much more opening for the Jews in these directions. The Fellahin, on the other hand, cannot support more Jews, useful as they might be to them in many ways, for the simple reason that they are so ground down by the Turkish Government that they have scarcely enough money for the bare necessities, let alone luxuries, of life. No doubt a certain number may find openings for work in the larger villages, where the simplest Jew is a genius at hand-work compared with the average Fellah; but this at the outside must be confined to a hundred or two, and life in the villages cannot be very comfortable at the best. Most of those who now get money in the villages have to itinerate widely if they are to get a sufficient profit out of their expedition. Very few Jews can get rich in Palestine. It is no uncommon thing for a poor and apparently pauper Jew to die in the midst of one of the communities, and for a bag of money—one or two hundred napoleons perhaps—to be found stowed away in some secret place. But such riches have seldom or never been earned in the country. It is the remains of money brought into the country from abroad. Many a poor Jew, having made his "pile," packs up his goods with it and goes off to the Holy Land to end his days in peace.