I. Name

The book receives its name from its author, which in Hebrew signifies "Salvation of God." Of his personal history we know but little. His father's name was Amoz, 1:1, by some thought to be a brother of king Amaziah. He is not to be confused with the prophet Amos; the two names being in Hebrew spelled quite differently. He was married, 8:3, and had two sons, 7:3 and 8:3. The period of his prophetical activity was from the last year of Uzziah, 6:1, to the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, 36:1. An unreliable Jewish tradition locates his death in the reign of Manasseh, when he was sawn asunder by that king on account of his persistent rebuke of his idolatry. His literary activity, as appears from 2 Chron. 26:22 and 32:32, was not confined to the book which now bears his name. Hosea and Amos were his contemporary prophets during the earlier part of his ministry, and Micah during the latter.

The scene of his ministry was Jerusalem, where he seems to have lived, 2 Kings 20:4, and where he exerted a powerful influence upon the king and the people, especially during the reign of Hezekiah, 37:2.

His strong personality, his great influence in civil affairs, his broad conception of the world, the length of his ministry, his magnificent style, and the profound spiritual tone of his writings have placed him at the head of the prophetic order.

II. Position

In our Hebrew Bible Isaiah stands first in the list of "Latter Prophets," and this order is found in the Spanish manuscripts and in the Jewish Massorah. This gives it its correct chronological position. In the Talmud and in the German manuscripts it follows Ezekiel, being third in the list, which reads Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah. The reason assigned for this by Kimchi is that the arrangement is due to the subject matter, Jeremiah opening with a sentiment akin to that found in the end of the Book of Kings. Bleek thinks the latter was the original arrangement.

III. Conditions under Which the Book Was Written

Isaiah began his career just as the long and splendid reign of King Uzziah was drawing to its close, 6:1. It had been an era of great material prosperity, which continued under Jotham, his successor, but declined under Ahaz, whose numerous wars resulted disastrously to the physical resources of his kingdom. The accession of Hezekiah, with his high moral purposes and his heroic effort to rescue his country from the grasp of her haughty invaders, checked the decline, but could not finally avert it. If, according to Jewish tradition, the prophet lived to witness the turbulence and the growing weakness of the nation under Manasseh, his experience must have been both exciting and depressing.

Spiritually the changes were equally great and disheartening. Uzziah had sought the true spiritual development of his people. Ahaz openly cast aside the faith of his fathers and embraced idolatry. Under Hezekiah a grand reformation was wrought, owing doubtless to the persistent effort of Isaiah; but under the influence of Manasseh the nation sank again to the lowest depths of spiritual degradation and was swept away by the Babylonian invasion ending in the great captivity.

In both civil and religious affairs Isaiah was a leading factor, always stoutly maintaining fidelity to God and justice to man. His personal relations with the royal families seem to have been very intimate, and he did not hesitate to speak boldly against their wickedness. He was so outspoken against all the prevalent forms of sin that both court and people feared and honored him.

Few men have had such a grand field in which to labor; none have faced their responsibilities more manfully, or worked more energetically and hopefully in the face of difficulty and defeat. As a statesman he was profound in detecting the evil influences at work among his people, and telling how to avert them; as a prophet he shows a knowledge of the kingdom of God surpassing that of any other prophet.

IV. Contents

It is difficult to make a formal analysis of the contents of this book. The arrangement is neither chronological nor topical, although we frequently find similar topics grouped together. The following will give a general idea of the contents:

A. Earlier prophecies, centering mainly around the invasion of Judah by the allied forces of Syria and Ephraim. Chs. 1-12.

1. Introductory. Chs. 1-6.

The book opens with a formal arraignment charging the people with unfaithfulness and ingratitude to God. Chs. 2-4 relate to the judgment of God for the pride and luxury of the people, but contain a vision of blessing for those who are "left in Zion." Ch. 5 shows how God is displeased with their ingratitude. The sixth chapter presents the peculiar and sublime account of Isaiah's formal call to his prophetic office.

2. Prophecies of the Syro-Ephraimitish war. Chs. 7-12.

The prophet addresses Ahaz on the alliances against him, and tells him he is not to fear the approach of his enemies, Ch. 7:3; predicts the birth of Immanuel, 7:14; announces the terrible judgments which will fall on those who do not trust in Jehovah, and the surpassing blessedness to follow the advent of the wonderful child to be born, 9:1-7. The peculiar recurring refrain Ch. 9:12, 17, 21, gives great solemnity to this utterance. The section closes with a lengthy statement of the ambition and fall of the Assyrians, Ch. 10, and gives a most consoling picture of the kingdom of Messiah, Ch. 11, and of the gratitude which will inspire the hearts of the faithful as they enter upon their blessings, Ch. 12.

B. Oracles regarding foreign nations. Chs. 13-27.

1. The various nations which have in any way tried to embarrass God's people are brought in review, and in a very searching way told of their sin and of the judgment which will follow. Chs. 13-23. In these oracles, or burdens, the prophet displays a profound knowledge of the peculiarities of the nations and of their designs upon the Jews.

2. The section concludes with a grand song of triumph, beginning with the recital of God's judgment on the ungodly nations which have thought to destroy Israel, Ch. 24, and then passing on to praise God for His tender care of His people. Both the language and the thought are of the highest order. The conception is lofty and the scope universal; the poetical diction placing it among the choicest specimens of Old Testament literature. Embedded in the general song are four beautiful hymns, 25:1-4; 25:6-8; 26:110; 27:2-6, which add greatly to the effect.

C. Prophecies arising from the relations between Judah, Assyria, and Edom, during the earlier years of Hezekiah. Chs. 28-35.

The doom of Ephraim is sure, Ch. 28:1-13, but God will lay the corner-stone of His kingdom, 28:14-22; Assyria will grievously afflict Jerusalem, 29:1-8, but God will follow the downfall of the oppressor with a condition of unparalleled blessedness for His people, 29:9-24. When the people turn to Egypt for relief from the advancing armies of the Assyrians, 30:2, Isaiah tells how unsatisfactory such an alliance would be, 30:8-32:8, and declares that the end of the Assyrian will soon come, 33:1-12; relieving the sadness of his narrative by painting glowing pictures of the peace and security of God's kingdom, 33:13-24. Turning to Edom, he contrasts its fearful doom, Ch. 34, with the joyful condition of Israel, when, as the "Ransomed of the Lord," they return to Zion, Ch. 35.

D. Historical narrative of some events in the life of Hezekiah. Chs. 36-39.

The close correspondence between this section and 2 Kings 18:13-20:19 must be carefully noted.

Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Judah and demands the surrender of Jerusalem, Ch. 36. At Hezekiah's request Isaiah remonstrates with the enemy and predicts his utter overthrow, which quickly follows, Ch. 37. When Hezekiah was sick Isaiah predicts his recovery, and when restored utters a song of thanksgiving, Ch. 38. When Merodach-Baladan, king of Babylon, sends an embassy to Hezekiah, he shows them his treasures, for which he is rebuked by the prophet, who predicts that the nation will soon be carried away to Babylon, Ch. 39.

E. The great deliverance. Chs. 40-66.

The thought of deliverance from bondage and return to their home-land pervades the entire section. Beginning with the proclamation of Cyrus, authorizing their return, it moves grandly forward to its consummation, their settlement in their own land in the midst of unspeakable blessings.

This part of the prophecy may be divided into three nearly equal sections, each ending with a similar sentiment, (1) Chs. 40-48; (2) 49-57; (3) 58-66.

1. In the first section, 40-48, the certainty of deliverance is emphasized. After a statement of the fact of deliverance, 40:1, 2; and of the preparations made for it, 40:3; the almighty power of God is exalted in contrast with heathen idols, 40:12-44:27; and then the name of the human agent of deliverance, Cyrus, is given, 44:28-45:1. As if to add confirmation, the prophet draws a further contrast between Jehovah and idols, Chs. 45 and 46; tells how the nation which oppressed them is to be overthrown, Ch. 47; and reasserts the unchangeable purpose of God, Ch. 48.

2. In the second section, Chs. 49-57, call is to preparation for this return. In Ch. 49 "The Lord's Servant" is described, the nature of His mission is stated, and His sufferings to secure their release are foretold in Chs. 52 and 53. Zion is comforted by the assurance of the restoration of the divine favor, 56; the faithless and unjust are reproved and repentance urged, Ch. 57. The growing intensity of the individuality of the "Lord's Servant" is to be specially noted throughout this section, as also the clearness with which the idea of vicarious suffering is presented.

3. In the third section, Chs. 58-66, the grand result of deliverance is presented. If the people respond to God's call He will grant rich blessings, 58-60. In Ch. 60 we find a glowing picture of the restored Zion, and in Ch. 61 the Servant of the Lord reappears. Ch. 62 tells of His mission, and the blessings of the restored people are recounted. Chs. 63 and 64 celebrate Israel's triumph over her enemies, and contain a hymn of thanksgiving and humble confession, full of spiritual fervor and gratitude, magnifying the divine mercy to the chosen people. In Ch. 65 the unfaithful are rejected from the coming blessings and the clioseii seed are assured that a new order will soon be inaugurated, greatly to their peace and happiness. Ch. 66 sets forth the majesty of God's dwelling-place and depicts the severe judgments to fall upon the faithless and the supreme felicity of those who dwell with God.

V. Authorship

A careful reading of the book reveals a great diversity of style and sentiment in different parts of it. This has led to much discussion of the question whether one person wrote all of it.

At first Chs. 40-66 were assigned to a person living in Babylon near the end of the captivity. Then a large part of the first thirty-nine chapters were declared to be the work of some one else besides Isaiah. Mitchell, in A Study of Chapters 1-12, declares that at least ten full chapters, besides large portions of others, are not the genuine writings of Isaiah. Some he assigns to a predecessor of Isaiah, but declares they are mostly exilic or post-exilic, thus leaving to Isaiah but a small part, and that the least important part of the book.

Driver, in his Introduction to the Old Testament, page 236 (Sixth Ed.), writing especially of Chs. 40-66, thus presents the argument for a later authorship, under three heads:

1. Internal Evidence. — Jerusalem is represented in ruins, 44:26; 58:12; 61:4; 63:18; 64:10. The sufferings of the Jews are ascribed to the Chaldeans, 42:22, 25; 43:28 (Rev. Ver. marg.); 47:6; 52:5. The end of the captivity is near, 40:2; 46:13; 48:20. The prophet speaks not to men in Jerusalem, but to exiles in Babylon, 40:21, 26, 28; 43:10; 48:8; 50:10; 51:6, 12; 58:3. It would be "contrary to the nature of prophecy," he tells us, for one like Isaiah to so project himself into the future. We must suppose the words were written by one living near the facts recited.

2. Literary Style. — Isaiah, he tells us, shows marked individualities of style. "His style is terse and compact." "In the chapters which contain evident allusions to the age of Isaiah these expressions occur repeatedly; in the chapters which are without such allusions, they are absent and new images and phrases appear instead." On the other hand, the writer of chapters 40-66 "has a style more flowing; the rhetoric is warm and impassioned, and the prophet often bursts into a lyric strain." In Isaiah's imagination grandeur is the most conspicuous characteristic, while in the writer of 40-66 it is pathos.

3. Theology. — "The theological ideas of Chs. 40-66 differ remarkably from those which appear from Chs. 1-39 to be distinctive of Isaiah. Thus, on the nature of God generally, the ideas expressed are much larger and fuller. Isaiah depicts the majesty of Jehovah; in Chs. 40-66 the prophet emphasizes His infinitude." "Truths which are merely affirmed in Isaiah are here made the subject of reflection and argument." "The relation of Israel to Jehovah is developed in different terms and under different conceptions from those used by Isaiah."

The argument in favor of assigning the authorship to Isaiah alone may be stated as follows:

1. From the earliest reference to it Isaiah has been regarded as the author of the entire book. The Apocryphal book Ecclesiasticus, 48:22-25, contains an indirect quotation from Isa. 38:8 and 40:1, 2; the first reference being found in the earlier portion of Isaiah, the second in the latter, and both are assigned to Isaiah. The Septuagint, 250 B.C., gives it as one book, and ascribes it to Isaiah.

Josephus, Antiq. XI., i, 2, says it was by reading the prophecies of Isaiah, Cyrus was led to issue the decree allowing the Jews to return from captivity. Allusion to Cyrus is found only in the second part of Isaiah. It would be strange that Cyrus could have been deceived into believing that a writing of his own time had been uttered so long before.

In the New Testament Isaiah is quoted more than one hundred times; his name being mentioned twenty-two times, eleven of which are in the first section and eleven in the second. In none of them is any intimation given of a division of authorship. Christ quotes from both sections, ascribing them to Isaiah.

2. The book, as it now stands, forms a systematic work; if we separate it, both parts are incomplete. Each part is necessary to explain the other. Chs. 36-39 form a prose connection between these parts, throwing light on what precedes, and opening the way for what follows. In the earlier parts, Chs. 1-39, is a picture of woe and suffering, a just judgment for sin; in the second part, Chs. 40-66, the dark picture is relieved by the promise of deliverance and salvation when that sin is repented of and forgiven. This is the usual course of prophetical teaching, warning followed by encouragement. To place one hundred and fifty years between these two parts renders both incomplete and makes Isaiah, as seen in the first section, a prophet of woe unlike any other of the prophets. Delitzsch, in his Commentary on Isaiah, II., 65, says, "The first half of the collection is a staircase leading up to the addresses to the exiles."

3. Over against the first argument of Driver, "Internal Evidence," we find many passages in the second part which read as if they were written, not in Babylon, during the exile, but before the exile began. In 42:9 Isaiah expressly says he is about to reveal new things before they spring forth. In 43:22,23 he charges the people with neglecting the sacrificial worship, and in 66:3 says their sacrifices are offered with an improper spirit; charges hardly applicable to the people in Babylon. In 40:2 he speaks comfortably to Jerusalem; a strange procedure if the city had long lain in ashes and was forsaken of her people.

4. As opposed to the second objection of Driver, "Literary Style," we argue that the language of the book shows unity of authorship. This is seen in the special use of words, as 14:7, "They break forth into singing," used also in 44:23 and 49:13, and nowhere else in the Old Testament. The peculiar pointing of the verb amar, when introducing a special message from Jehovah, in 1:11, 18; 33:10, agrees with that found in 40:1, 25; 41:21, and is peculiar to Isaiah. The expression "The Holy One of Israel" is found fourteen times in each section, and nowhere else in the Old Testament.

5. The same fact appears in the theological ideas of the book. In the first part, Chs. 7-1 1, we have the Immanuel prophecy, and this is fitly supplemented in Chs. 52 and 53 by the Suffering Messiah. Orelli, Comm.y p. 213, who thinks the work as it now stands has been edited by a later hand, says, "That the entire book as it now lies before us comes from one author is undoubted." "The book in its present form was written by one author, from whom we have scarcely anything else in the Bible." In another place, speaking of Chs. 13, 14, 21, 25, which some critics claim were not written by Isaiah, he says, "The resemblances point to this, that the author, if not identical with Isaiah, drank in the spirit of his book as regards form." If the spirit is identical, why is it necessary to tear the book into fragments and then assign each fragment to a different author?

From this survey of the arguments, while we acknowledge the cogency of many of the points raised in opposition to the unity of the book, we see no sufficient reason for departing from the settled opinion that Isaiah is the author of the entire book. It has doubtless met with some modifications by later editors, as have so many of the Old Testament books, yet they are not of such a character as to deprive Isaiah of the claim to authorship. Until more positive and decisive reasons are presented, the claim for a divided authorship must stand as "not proven."

LITERATURE

Commentaries: Delitzsch, Alexander, Cheyne and G. A. Smith. Introductions of Driver and Keil. For a very exhaustive and satisfactory defense of the unity of Isaiah, see Margoliouth, Lines of Defense of the Biblical Revelation, pp. 72-138. For the more radical view, see Cheyne, The Book of Isaiah Chronologically Arranged; Driver, Isaiah, His Life and Times. For the unity of the book see Douglas, Isaiah 0ne and His Book One; Sayce, Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments and The Times of Isaiah; Forbes, The Servant of the Lord; articles on Isaiah in Smith's Bible Dictionary, and Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible,